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The second type, which comprises groups 2 and 3 and contains, as it happens, families who were moderately wealthy, families. Poor people Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka group comprises one tenth of the entire population and contains elderly and sick craftsmen, for example, tailors, mainly repairers and patchers and also daily workers 5 ; middlemen 1peddlers 1messengers 2 out of 4furriers 2and so on.

Jan Zdrowski, born in Trubin, Poland, discusses prewar relations between Jews and Christians; the creation of a Jewish council; a mass killing of the Jews following the German invasion; the roundup of the rest of the Jewish community; a second mass killing; the burial pits; hiding a Jewish boy; complicated village memories of the Judenrat and its relationship with the Nazi regime, with particular regard to non-Jewish Poles who were likely to aid the Jewish community; and the survival of three Jewish people from Trubin.

Jadwiga Wojciechowska, born in Legionowo, Poland indiscusses living near Chelm, Poland during the war; the execution of a Jewish family; and witnessing a column of Jewish men, women, and children being driven by Ukrainian guards to Sobibor extermination camp. Janina Mielczarek, born in Warta, Poland indiscusses prewar relations between Jews and Christians; anti-Jewish violence; public hangings; working at a party the Germans threw after the hangings; her father being taken for forced labor; local Poles who were forced into complicity; the roundup and imprisonment of the Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka population; and a mass killing.

Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka Krawczyk, born in Kalisz, Poland indiscusses the formation of the ghetto; its liquidation; and seeing a mass grave in the Jewish cemetery. Halina Marcinkowska, born in in Sieradz, Poland, describes her work as a researcher checking written testimonies and data pertaining to Jewish pogroms organized by anti-communist guerilla groups during and after in the Kalisz-Warta-Sieradz region; her work conducting interviews with witnesses of the pogroms; and her work collecting testimonies about the first use of gas trucks by German forces in Henryk Maliszewski, born in Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka Siedlce, Poland, describes the liquidation of the Jewish ghetto in Siedlce, including the involvement of Jewish policemen, and the transport of victims' corpses.

Jerzy Szapiro, born in in Warsaw, Poland, describes his family; the antisemitic behavior of Polish students; life in the Warsaw ghetto; escaping the ghetto and living in hiding in the home of his father's Polish friend; and his life after the war in Poland.

Jozef Jozefowicz, born in in Kalisz, Poland, describes the professions within the local Jewish community under German occupation and witnessing the deportation of the Jewish community of Kalisz in or Tadeusz Przybyl, born in in Kalisz, Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka, describes the Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka of the Jewish community under German occupation; the roundup, imprisonment, and deportation of the local Jewish community in and ; his family hiding a Jewish boy who survived the war; the ghetto of Kalisz; and Soviet forces taking German prisoners of war.

Leszek Krysiak, born in in Kalisz, Poland, describes the establishment of a Jewish ghetto in ; Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka deportation of Jews to the ghetto; the treatment of Polish and Jewish civilians during German occupation; the Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka of Jewish policemen; the murder of Jews in gas vans; local townspeople moving into formerly Jewish owned homes; and his apprenticeship after the war in a Jewish-run shoe-making cooperative.

Jacek Ossowski, born in in Lublin, Poland, describes the the prewar Jewish community of Lublin; the treatment of the Jewish community by German forces during occupation; the Jewish ghetto; the liquidation of the ghetto, including the deportation of his Jewish friends to Majdanek concentration camp; attempts by his family to help local Jews; his brother's involvement in the underground army; and his forced labor at Majdanek.

Bogdan Pazur, born in in Lublin, Poland, describes the arrival of German forces in ; anti-Jewish propaganda spread by German forces and Polish collaborators; antisemitic Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka by local Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka and German forces; the establishment of the Jewish ghetto; the liquidation and looting of the Jewish ghetto; and the hanging of German guards from Majdanek concentration camp. Marian Maciejewski, born in Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka Wilno, Poland present day Vilnius, Lithuaniadescribes his work as a conductor of a train; witnessing how Jews were taken from the train to execution pits; being forced to drive his train over dead and wounded Jews on the railroad tracks; German soldiers burning the corpses of murder victims; Lithuanian and Belarusian policemen assisting in the roundups of Jews; the uprising of the Vilnius ghetto; the actions of Jewish policemen; an incident in which a group of young Jews escaped from the train into the nearby forest; witnessing the Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka of two Jews on the Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka tracks; and Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka actions of his sister-in-law in saving three Jewish children.

Marian Trachimovicz, born in Grodno, Poland Hrodna, Belarusdescribes his family Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka the prewar Jewish community of Grodno; a pogrom organized by members of a Polish nationalist party; the Soviet invasion in ; his participation in the Grodno resistance; the Soviet occupation of Grodno; the arrival of German forces in ; restrictions placed upon the Jewish community, including the establishment of ghettos; the brutal treatment of the Jewish community by German forces; actions of the Jewish police; his mother hiding two Jewish men; the liquidation of the Jewish ghettos; and his time in the military.

Stefania Fatyga, born in Poland, describes the prewar Jewish community of Raszkow; the deportation Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka local Jews; and the persecution of her husband by the Polish Secret Police after the war.

Izabella Horodeczka, born in Warsaw, Poland indiscusses her work as a nurse during the war; her work for the resistance; her training; working for a Red Cross hospital; the Russian invasion; the arrest and execution of people with whom she worked at Katyn', Russia; becoming involved in the resistance; living conditions during the German occupation; the arrest of many resistance members; the organization of the resistance; operations in which she was involved; working with a special civil court that carried out executions; conditions in the Warsaw Ghetto; Jewish informers; and an attack on German administrative offices.

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Please do not send any materials until explicitly directed to do so by curatorial staff. Thank you for your understanding. Back to Results New Search. Oral history interview with Narcyza Materlik. Interviewee Narcyza Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka.

Kutno, Poland [Pages ]

Date interview: July Language Polish. Expand all. About This Oral History. Keywords and Subjects. Holocaust, Jewish --Poland. World War, Concentration camps--Poland. World War, Atrocities--Poland. Death marches. Concentration camp inmates--Poland--Oswiecim. Women--Personal narratives. Poland--History--Occupation, Rawa Mazowiecka Poland. Personal Name Materlik, Narcyza. Administrative History. Legal Status Permanent Collection.

Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka interview was directed and supervised by Nathan Beyrak. Rights and Restrictions. Conditions on Access No restrictions on access. Conditions on Use Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka restrictions on use. Oral history interview with Zofia Szalek Oral History Zofia Szalek, born March 14, in Chelmno, Poland, discusses living near the church in Chelmno where Jewish prisoners were kept before they were gassed; witnessing Jewish men, women, and children arrive to the site; seeing Jews loaded into gas vans and driven away; witnessing prisoners attempt to escape; and the liquidation of the camp.

Oral history interview with Sabina Wojtczak Oral History Sabina Wojtczak, born in Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka, Poland indiscusses living near Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka church in Chelmno where Jewish prisoners were Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka before they were gassed; witnessing Jewish men, women, and children arrive to the site; and seeing Jews being loaded into gas vans and driven away.

Oral history interview with Tadeusz Wojtczak Oral History Tadeusz Wojtczak, born in Poland near Chelmno, discusses witnessing several instances of the murder of members of the Jewish community in his town. Oral history interview with Piotr Sadowski Oral History Piotr Sadowski, born in Warsaw, Poland indiscusses joining an underground youth group in ; being arrested and sent to Auschwitz in ; falling ill in the camp; witnessing a selection while in the hospital; joining a work brigade called the strafkompanie penal work brigade ; becoming a singer in the camp; working on the construction of the first gas chamber; relations among prisoners in Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka camp; being sent to Dachau, Buchenwald, and Ohrdruf concentration camps; and liberation.

Oral history Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka with Irena Stojak Oral History Irena Stojak, born in Usciaz, Poland indiscusses trading food with Jewish prisoners at the prison camp in Poniatowa; anti-Jewish violence; and a Jewish fugitive who was shot by partisans. Oral history interview with Wiktoria Bartler Oral History Wiktoria Bartler, born in Opole Lubelskie, Poland indiscusses the Jewish trade in the marketplace; living on the border of the ghetto; and witnessing Jewish children smuggle food into the ghetto.

Oral history interview with Pajak Wilibald Oral History Wilibald Pajak, born indiscusses living in Katowice, Poland during World War II; becoming a member of the underground; being arrested and sent to Auschwitz in ; meeting Jewish prisoners from across Europe; and the harsh working conditions in Auschwitz. Oral history interview with Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka Marossanyi Oral History Wanda Marossanyi, born indiscusses her work in the underground in Szczawnica, Poland; being arrested and sent to Auschwitz in ; and her involvement in collecting property from prisoners in Birkenau.

According to the official account this sum can be divided into an average of Since families were eligible to pay tax, each family paid Out of wage earners, were taxable, which is The various exemptions have already been discussed; they are only listed here: most of the community clerks assistants poor people those who were eligible families not settled at the time of tax determination As Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka group which carried a heavy burden of taxes, the butchers can be selected.

In addition to general taxes they made special payments for the benefit of leases Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka slaughtering and delivery services.

It should be noted that the extra payment for an ox came to 8 florins and 5 zlotys, and for a cow 7 florins and 24 zlotys.

The price of an ox was florins and for a cow 50 florins. And from this, part of the various payments totalled percent of the value of the ox, and percent of a cow. Of course, all this would be paid by the consumer. From this, it can be concluded that a Jew who was not wealthy could only enjoy eating meat on the Sabbath and festivals.

From the three types of taxes the village Jews only Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka the state the poll tax, and to the land owner they paid the indirect taxes on the breweries and bars. The levy of Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka poll tax in the village was approximately the same as in the town, an average of 6 florins per family. The income from this tax amounted to florins.

The land owner collected 14, florins from leasing the breweries and from bars florins was collected.

As already mentioned, 50 florins were collected from leasing the smallest brewery and 2, florins from the biggest. Money from leasing milk supply came to 20 florins. Only 66 out of Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka village families Thirty-two families Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka not pay taxes; of these, 26 families Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka only recently arrived; two assistants; two poor families; two families who owed taxes for several years 1 tailor, 1 bar owner.

It was usual that out of 22 bar owners, only five paid rent and all of them declared that they Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka not intend to pay taxes as bar owners, to the lord of the village. There is no way of knowing if this was in fact the way or if it was a whim on the part of the land owner alone.

It is likely that the land owner decided this by himself. The two slaughterers paid rent, since they also had occupations on the side. The total Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka of taxes levied on the village Jews reached 14, florins, which is an average of Compared to the town levy, the village levy per person was more than double, and per family it Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka more than three times greater.

Sixty-six families paid only The number of Jewish families in the town was four times greater than that in the village and the total taxes amounted to only 28 percent compared to that in the village. The rent for various leases paid to the land owner in the village was twice that paid in the town: 14, florins compared to 7, florins. Rent from leases on distilleries in the village alone amounted to 14, florins.

Table Taxes in town and village In town florins In village florins State tax 2, Community tax 9, Land owner tax 7, 14, Total 19, 14, 34, According to the above table, taxes paid to the land owner amounted to 21, florins, which were 64 percent of all the taxes, compared to 25 percent collected by the community and less than 10 percent state taxes. As will be seen, this figure of those liable for tax was only on paper, and undoubtedly Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka after payment from each individual.

Below the account is the signature of the Regent of Plock, and the date 8. Typical of the Prussian taxation system was the clerk's inability to make do with increasing the number of those liable for tax on paper from Prostitutes Rawa Mazowieckabut immediately increased the figure with a new account to people, and, a few lines later, to According to this, everyone was liable for tax, even infants in the cradle.

The impression is credible that the two last figures were personal calculations made by an over-zealous and faithful clerk whose intention Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka to squeeze the population as much as possible. This assumption is supported by the fact that these calculations were not signed by the regent as was the first reckoning. At all events, it is clear Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka the Prussian authorities increased the numbers of tax payers in comparison with the first list the official one if only that number of tax payers was greater by 27 percent than that in the days of the Polish authorities : The date is apparently incorrect since Stanislaw Augustus relinquished his throne in It is likely that before us is a mistake by an illiterate scribe or a forgery.

The contract clearly determines: Commercial monopoly of the land owner; Scope of free trade; The authority to which the Jews Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka supervision in judicial and court matters; Rights of Jewish inhabitants. To our great regret we were not able to obtain this important document. But in the end they rose up and set up independent communities with their own rabbis. The Prussian clerk noted that the Rabbi of Gostynin was not legal as he did not have the relevant qualifications and contrary to the laws of Israel, he also engaged in commerce!

Jewish residents from 71 villages in the area also belonged to the community and paid taxes to it. They were obliged under threat of excommunication to travel to the town to give any information required. According to the Prussian clerk, Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka Kutno community at that time did not keep up any contact with communities in other areas of Prussia and not even with other communities in Poland.

As mentioned, in addition to the teachers from the community there were also private teachers. The number of clerks was very high and it is doubtful if that was indeed their number. The statistics also refer to a synagogue and a religious seminary which were inside wooden buildings. Concerning the brick-built synagogue, whose building was started in and stopped owing to the difficult economic situation, this was already discussed previously this synagogue was completed in the year [39].

The community also maintained guest houses. The Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka was derived from a direct tax which brought Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka 6, florins and also from slaughtering tax, which it is remembered, brought in 3, florins in Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka Together the income in reached a sum of 9, florins. Up to that time the land owner had levied the meat tax himself as compensation for the debt owed to him by the community. He collected 2, Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka a year and only from onwards the fees from leased slaughtering went to the community treasury.

The highest community tax was florins and the lowest was 2 florins. Whoever paid a lot to the state and the land owner, a lot was also taken from him for the community. However, exceptions were also noted.

House ownership, whether sole or shared ownership, is not an indicator of an individual's wealth.

Here certainly the whim Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka the landowner became a set custom. Although the burial society books have a record that a tenant from the village of Golmbow paid community tax, it is likely it Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka not mean community but poll tax to the state, which was also levied on village Jews. It must be mentioned that the community suffered from a permanent financial deficit. Two sources are available concerning the burial society at that time: Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka short report in the Prussian document and the register of the burial society itself.

The register is from the yearbut there are some entries from earlier dates, from the year The pages from and afterwards are from the old ledger, and apparently they were torn from the old book and bound together with the new one. During the Holocaust this ledger was lost, together with the community archives and other cultural treasures.

The source of the regulations in the ledger is from the 19 th century. The records in the ledger Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka complementary with the report and relying on both, a reliable picture of the organization and activity of this institution is painted.

At the head of the burial society stood managers who were elected in elections arranged on Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka concluding day of the Passover festival. Slips bearing the names of registered voters were placed into a ballot box and it was customary to take out five slips. Up until that date they were obliged to appoint three managers for a period of tenure of one year and also three substitutes.

However they were allowed some rights: they were allowed to let new members join and to add new regulations to the register, and also to fill the position of regulator in other communities. Passive voting rights were granted only after six years of membership and active rights after three years. In contradiction to what was Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka in the Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka document, the ledger emphasizes that the managers were obliged to hand over a financial report at the time of the election assembly and that the accounts had to be confirmed by all present.

Each month a different manager headed the society. The managers had to be financially stable and with no blemish in their way of life.

In addition to matters relating to burial, other duties were imposed on them: visiting the sick, distributing benefits to the poor and festival refreshments to religious staff. The caretaker of the society had to stay overnight in the home of a sick person during the first days of the sickness; after that the society members did it, under the supervision of the monthly manager who summoned the members by little notes.

Later on, the burial society also had its own hospital. As already noted, the burial society usually donated money to the poor, widows and also the elderly, caretakers and other lower rank religious staff. Going by the record ofmonthly support money amounted Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka 88 zloty.

According to the Prussian document, inthe expenses of the society reached zloty a year. Society income was derived from membership fees, from donations paid into the collection boxes at funerals, from monthly payments made by the members for the poor, from income from the mikveh [ritual bath house] built Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka money from the society, and also from the sale of burial plots. This last payment was paid according to the financial situation of the deceased.

Of course, funerals were also conducted free of charge. A member of the society did not Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka more than 10 zloty even if he was very rich. The subscription fee for the son of a member was also 10 zloty outsiders paid more ; however, this could only be paid after marriage.

The salary of the caretaker was paid from income from the ritual bath, from the collection box and an additional 30 zloty a Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka. From the Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka, his monthly salary was zloty a year.

Typical of the social strictness of the society is an action concerning a member, the son of a butcher who had started to deal in his father's business, in contradiction to his promise at the time of registration in the society that he would not do so.

Because of this his voting rights were taken from him details from The burial society held an important place in the community and to a certain extent was in competition with the community council itself. At times, the same people headed the two institutions at the same time inMosze Majzler headed the community council and at the same time was the caretaker of the burial society. As mentioned, the income from the ritual bath house was at the Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka of the society, and the society was informed of matters referring to charity, care of the sick, etc.

Typical of the competing status of the burial society is a detail in the protocol from the year that three years previously that is, in the poll tax of a village lease holder from Golmbow was reduced following cancellation of a loan of zloty that he had borrowed in order to buy land for the extension of the cemetery. It is characteristic that the guarantee for this loan was the silver finials of the scroll of the Law. According to the Prussian report this cash fund had no great value since the only person putting money into it for some years was the manager in charge of it.

Income was derived from donations made for the participation in readings of the Law Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka synagogue which brought in an average of zloty a year.

The money was used for lighting in the synagogue and for small repairs, Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka covered expenses. The report relates that the Prussian authorities remarked that an income of zloty a year seemed too small, since in other communities this amounted to several thousand florins. However, the caretakers and leaders explained that, because of the dilapidated Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka of the synagogue the public did not attend services in the stormy winter days, and owing to this the income was low.

The impoverished situation of the Jewish Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka at Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka end of the 18 th century was also reflected in the financial state of the communities which sank into debt, which was a burden on their condition. It was their bad luck that their expenses grew at that Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka. The promotion of community taxes and introduction of consumer taxes on meat etc.

Loans were fairly easy to obtain since in Poland banks appeared only at the end of the 18 th century and owners of capital did not have anywhere to invest their money.

Because the church laws forbade the taking of interest, loans were Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka made to Jews, and especially to the community, which was then considered a more secure loan.

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Credit was given by the farmers and the land owners, and especially by the rich clergy. However, owing to Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka impoverishment of the population and the inefficient management of the financial market in the community, the loans could not be paid and in order to pay the accumulated interest the leaders took out new loans. In this way the debts of Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka community grew and reached hundreds of thousands of zloty. The various attempts that were made by the government of Poland to manage the debts were unsuccessful and the problem was handed down as an inheritance to the countries which divided Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka the kingdom of Poland between them.

The community of Kutno was no exception. Their loan Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka given by the land owner of Kutno. His successor, the lord Zantkowski, received as coverage for this sum, the rent from meat slaughtering leases which reached the sum of 2, florins a year.

In this way, the yearly deficit was florins. However, the Jews claimed to have paid in addition florins, but the accounts were not finalized. In this case, the Jews tried to prove that the land owner forced the agreement on them and that he illegally added further sums to the actual debt.

The report notes that it is likely that from the outcome of the trial the land owner returned the rent from meat slaughtering for the whole of the year to the community. Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka rich in the community bore the Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka of the debt. As noted, they paid the land owner various sums on account of the debt.

At the same time the lease for meat slaughtering went up in price, to 3, florins.

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There is no information available concerning the state of the community of Kutno in the new political situation, since the above mentioned survey only deals Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka the previous period. The policy of the Prussian authorities towards the Jewish population in the Polish areas was dictated by fiscal motives, on the one hand, and by the character of the enlightened bureaucratic ruling authority, according to the Prussian concept at that time, on Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka other hand.

According to an order from Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka yearthe Jews in south-east Prussia were subject to a list of economic restrictions: trade in the villages was forbidden; wage earners were forbidden to deal in secondary occupations etc. The authorities struck out at Jewish autonomy by limiting the power of the communities and rabbis to religious matters alone, cancelling the boycott and the organizing contacts between the communities.

In the same way, the burden of taxes was made heavier. The Polish poll tax was upped from 3 to 10 zloty. New taxes were also added: army tax, tax on kosher meat, wedding payments, burial, etc.

Only those over the age of 25 were allowed to marry, and only if they had a steady income and had capital. With the Prussian single mindedness and methods the police state attempted to destroy the Jewish life style, established for generations. Jews were especially hurt by interference into the internal workings of the communities. By a stroke of luck, this rule only lasted fourteen years. The Kutno community in the 19 th century and beginning of the 20 th During the time of the Grand duchy of Warsaw Kutno belonged to the district of Warsaw and the Jewish community was considered one Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka the important ones in it.

However, the Napoleonic wars caused the Jewish population in the town to dwindle, and in the official estimate of the Kutno community was no more than 1, persons. At that time, the percentage of Jews in the town's population was In negotiations with the grand duchy of Warsaw, the representative of the Jews of Kutno stood out: Head of the council, Mosze ben Jerimyahu Majzler. This tax was implemented by state law on 25 th March,for the amount of 3, zloty, and replaces all previous taxes.

Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka this amount was beyond all the paying power of the Jewish Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka which had become impoverished during the wars.

The amount of tax was 84 zloty per family, about four times the load that a family under Austrian rule had borne. All attempts by Majzler were fruitless.

In his letter to the head of the community council of Poznan, dated 22 nd Octoberhe wrote: To hear the reply of the minister of justice, nothing is left but for the mourner to rend his garment to pieces [1]. At the end of October Majzler attended a meeting of representatives of the Warsaw district communities, where there was a consultation session regarding the steps taken by the government to make changes in the distribution of the kosher meat tax between the various communities and the Warsaw community, in favour of the country towns.

And in the end the chancellor agreed to call a meeting of representatives of the Jewish population in the area of the Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka grand duchy, which was held in Warsaw at the end of March Majzler as present among them, as the representative of Kutno and, together with Eliezer Mosze Efraim from Inowroclaw was received for an interview with the chancellor in the name of the entire assembly. However, the representatives did not accept the stand of the Principalities' authorities and continued their battle against the injustice.

Mosze Majzler, the Kutno representative, played an important part in this meeting, which attempted to persuade the government how honourable the demands of the Jewish population were [2]. While carrying out these activities, Majzler moved from Kutno to Leszno, where he fulfilled the post of civil representative for the community which was one of the most important in Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka grand duchy of Warsaw.

At the beginning of an order was given stating that all questions to the government had to be made in Polish, but not one person could be found in Leszno who had reasonable command of the Polish language. The wealthy community, therefore, turned to the head of the community of Kutno, who was not only fluent in the Polish language but also it turned out that as civil representative for the government he was well known for good connections with influential people [3]. The community of Leszno requested Majzler to become their representative at a salary of 8 taler a week and in addition to that he would receive half a percentage on each wedding tax [4].

And so, in JanuaryMosze Majzler signed, as Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka of the delegates for the Poznan district, on an agreement stating that the Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka of the slaughtering tax and army service would be settled. In exchange for the Jewish Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka agreeing to put the tax up to 3 million zloty, the Jews were exempted from military service [5].

Majzler also continued in this position, also during the exciting years of Napoleon's journey to Russia [6]. After the abolishment of the grand duchy of Warsaw the district of Poznan was annexed to the large grand duchy of Poznan Then Majzler was heard of for the last time. On 13 th August he gave a patriotic speech in honour of the Prussian king Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka Wilhelm and his commissioner Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka the great grand Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka of Poznan, Prince Anatoly Radziwill.

Rabbi Eliezer Brisz died in Kutno on 5 th Tishri He was extremely respected among his contemporaries. During the time of the Polish rebellion it was discovered that a Jew from Kutno, by the name of Szymon Bryn served in the secret Russian police and was a deputy agent of Matias Szlay one of Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka leading agents in the secret police in Warsaw.

Szymon Bryn, or Shymele as he was known in Kutno, studied at the religious seminary in his youth and, since he knew a little Polish, was appointed secretary for the community. On a Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka to Warsaw on community business he met Szlay who suggested to him that he should be a spy in Kutno.

Szymon agreed and swore an oath that he would be faithful to the Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka and tell the truth. In reward for his service at first he received 3 red zloty 54 Polish guldenand later 5 zloty. Apparently he submitted his reports in Yiddish and reported all that he saw and heard in Kutno. But it seems that he did not have anything significant to report. During the uprising the police archives fell into the hands of the rebels and so the name of Szymon Bryn came to light.

In the spring of he was arrested and after interrogation his name was made public as a secret agent. The incident was no small sensation among the Jews of Kutno.

Later on the authorities released him and from then on he was under police surveillance [9].

The economic prosperity of Congress Poland also reached Kutno. The first buds of industry which started blossoming in the last decade of the 18 th century flourished well in the twenties of the 19 th century [10] and the prayer shawl factory was awarded a silver medal [11] at the industrial fair which was held in Warsaw in the year Following the opening of the Kalisz railway and the Vienna track inKutno turned into an important railway junction in the Plock district and also for the district of Kalisz, since these places had been cut off from a direct rail connection with Warsaw.

His father's enterprise was liquidated after he died. His grand-daughter Lily converted to Christianity and entered a convent in France.

If converts are being discussed, also the Frankensztajn family should be mentioned [14]. Leon Frankensztajn was a merchant in Kutno in the second half of the 18 th century. His son Alexander Leon served as an inspector in the tobacco monopoly for the Congress Poland treasury.

His grandson, Edward, held an important post at the Russian embassy in Brussels and was elevated to the Russian hereditary aristocracy. He was also known as a gifted violinist [15]. In the twenties of the 19 th century there was a school in the town for Jewish children.

There, secular subjects were taught and examinations were held for clerks in the town council. Before the war, certificates relating to this school were stored in the Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka hall archives. In the Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka the house owners of Kutno usually sent their children to learn secular Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka in Warsaw, and in the yearsthe brothers Icchak and Naftali Nelkin could be found at a rabbinical school in Warsaw which got a name among the orthodox as a nest of unbelievers ; at that time they were pupils in Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka second and third classes [16].

Hirsz Kopel, son of the wealthy Kutno merchant, learnt in the 50's at the medical-surgical academy in Warsaw [17]. During the years of the Polish rebellion, inDr.

Josef Handelsman Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka an Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka post in Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka neighbourhood of Kutno, and this interesting personality deserves attention. Josef Handelsman completed his studies at high school in Warsaw inand in at the medical school in Petersburg. The young doctor quickly looked for a respected place in the society of the town, and owing to his specialty in brain inflammation diseases, many patients thronged to him and he gained a reputation among both Jews and land owners.

When the rebellion broke out Dr. Handelsman Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka appointed head of the rebels for the whole area of Gostynin.

He was very active in the rebellion and urged the Jews to cooperate with the rebels. One of them was Icik, servant of the Kutno merchant Hersz, who collected fees and donations from the Jews of Kutno for the rebels' funds.

It can be assumed that by his influence, feelings of friendship prevailed between the rebels and the Jews in the Kutno area. At the Christmas celebrations a Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka was raised towards unity between all the faiths and classes.

One of the rebels, by the name of Wiszniewski, was in charge of some craftsmen and among them some Jews; Dr. In Handelsman journeyed abroad to look for weapons. Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka he came into contact with the Jewish agents, Goldsztajn and Kaliszer. On return to Poland he was arrested and sentenced to Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka in Siberia.

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We do not know if Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka Handelsman Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka imprisoned in the fortress, but in any event, after he returned from going abroad, he stood trial again.

This time he was sentenced to two years in prison. After serving his time he returned to Kutno; in he moved to Wloclawek and died there of old age in the year [18]. His eldest son, the Polish historian, Prof. Marceli Handelsman, was born from his Christian wife, and was brought up from birth as a Christian.

In he Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka murdered by the nationalist Polish underground N. The younger son, Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka, was a high school teacher. During the time of Handelsman and shortly afterwards Dr. Feliks Orensztajn served as doctor in Kutno and was highly esteemed. He was born in Warsaw and Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka his studies at the Faculty of Medicine in The same year he worked in Kutno where he Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka as doctor for thirty-four years, until He Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka in Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka typhus which Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka contracted while Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka his patients.

To his special credit is Dr. Orensztajn's Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka of Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka therapeutic centre at Ciechocinek. Also his research in the field of medicine won him praise among medical circles in Poland. Inhe emigrated to Israel and settled in Jerusalem where he died Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka [20]. After Rabbi Lajb left, apparently Kutno remained without a rabbi for two years. Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka the years of the reign of Alexander the Second the legal Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka which had been put on the Jews of Poland were lifted, and on 5 th June a law was declared Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka equal rights to Jews.

The greatest satisfaction was concerning the abolition of the kosher meat tax, which had been a burden on the Jewish population for scores of years. The same year Jews were granted the right to vote Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka municipal elections. In connection with these events festive prayers were offered in the synagogue and religious seminary in Kutno. The town Rabbi gave Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka sermon and Szlomo Icchak Oslowinski the cantor did not spare a special chant for the Czar, his representative in Poland the Grand Prince Constantine, and for the head Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka the civil administration Marquis Wielopolski, who supported the granting of equal rights to Jews at the price of their assimilation.

It was he who persuaded the Czar to publish the ukases from and [21]. In the Hebrew newspapers from the second half of the 19 th century details were published about people and Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka characteristic of the way of life in those days. She was a rich enough lady, since the first ones cost 6, Polish zloty. The celebration was commemorated generously - first there was a reception for the whole town, where, according to the reporter's notes, more than one thousand were present men, women and children.

Rabbi Jehoszele Kutner, who was then the rabbi, brought the scrolls under a canopy into the synagogue, accompanied by musical instruments.

The cantor sang and there was dancing in the streets. As a token of respect and gratitude, the widow was permitted to place the scroll with her very own hands in the Holy Ark. In the evening the donor arranged a feast for the scholars and generously distributed charity [22]. Numbered among the big rich men in the town at this time was the lumber merchant Jacob Erdberg, who had business connections with the land owners and employed many Jewish families.

In his will he left 3, roubles as a public charity. His wife Miriam was also very popular in the town. Also estate owner Lajb Kuszmirak and the Kocker Chassid Jehuda Majer Lipski later he moved to Gur who was given special permission to wear the robes of a rabbi. Rozencweig, Israel Wolf Gliksman, father of Dr. Abraham and Dr. Icze Gliksman and the stepfather of the leader of the Bund, Wiktor Alter.

Authority in the community was, of course, in the hands of the respected house owners, rich men and scholars, although it did happen that the common people rebelled and claimed that their opinion should also be heard in the community. Therefore the cantor lead the prayer in the seminary and it was very nice.

The next Sabbath the common crowd asked that the cantor lead the prayer in the synagogue. The matter was brought before the rabbi and according to the compromise that he suggested, the cantor would only lead prayers for the beginning of the Sabbath and the additional Bible reading in the synagogue. It is amazing how the feelings of the crowd got agitated over the prayers of a cantor when even the accepted authority of the town rabbi was not able to placate them.

How the quarrel was resolved we do not know [24]. Apparently, at certain times, outstandingly friendly relations existed between Jews and Christians, and this is proved by the catastrophic fire in On 19 th March a fire broke out in some Jewish houses and six hundred families were destitute.

In an article it is reported about the great help extended by the Christians in putting the fire out, and also how a group of amateur Polish actors dedicated the earnings from their show towards the damage. Owners of estates in the area offered flour and potatoes [25]. Normal relations also existed between the community and the Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka landowners in Kutno, the Zawadzkis. In when the lawyer Zawadzki died, the community laid a wreath of flowers on his grave [26].

It is very likely that no wreath of flowers was laid on the grave of Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka young woman from Suwalki who devoted herself to the education of Jewish girls and who, in the same yearkilled herself with her own hand.

This woman, after teaching at the gymnasium in Vilna arrived in Kutno with the intention of opening a school there for girls. Apparently the townspeople did not support her. So she put an end to her life by swallowing poison [27]. Who was this woman, a pioneer in the field of education in the town? About this, the article we have does not tell at all.

The percentage of Jews, therefore, reached Among this number were 1, heads of families and 3, dependents on them.

On the average, there were 2. The number of children in families engaged in trade was greater than the general average and reached 3. This was because among the craftsmen the youngsters became economically independent earlier than among the merchants or shopkeepers.

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Those marked in the list as Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka of capital were, apparently, house owners, interest loan merchants and other who invested money in one way or another in trade. A significant percentage, therefore, of the Jewish population, made a living from commerce and business credit. The census did not record the separation of wage earners into employers and employed.

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These two groups are included as independent. At any event, surely servants, clerks, scholars Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka teachers were salaried. All these together come to No figures are available for determining the part these groups played in the Jewish wage earners group altogether.

It must be mentioned that the list omits agricultural workers Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka it must be imagined that they were not absent among the Jews who leased farms or owners of gardens and fields. But it Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka that farming for them was only a secondary occupation during the summer, and the list deals with only one source of income. Below, the various occupations are given in more detail.

As in suburbs of other cities and towns, here also tailoring was a typical Jewish occupation. The second place is taken up by processing of alcohol and other drinks. More than ninety percent of those occupied in this did Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka work in breweries, but they certainly were owned by Jews, and mainly Christians worked in them. Third place in the list is held by the textile industry, and the fourth, building. Fifth place goes to the wood industry and the sixth to food.

It must be noted that no Jews at all were found in the metal industry Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka none either in the chemical industry. The number of independent women, from the economic point of view, is quite negligible. Only in the clothing branch were a few women occupied, 12 out of Very small indeed, according to the table, was the part Jews played in the forest industry; only one man, while in other settlements this was one of the important occupations involving capital-holding Jews.

The second largest branch of industry, after craft and industry, was Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka.

Division of the branches of commerce are set out below: Table Commerce Branch Independent Family members Total Percent General merchants Together with family members, they made up 9 percent of all the Jewish population.

The large number of agents could be appended to that group at least, half of themand also those appearing in the category of undefined employment. Altogether this group, whose economic basis was unsure and was from hand to mouth, amounts to people, including family members, that is, This number clearly indicates the rundown economic situation of large sectors among the Jews, especially since it does not include poor craftsmen, disadvantaged religious workers and just poor.

Together with all those, the number of economically disadvantaged persons was twice as great, at least. More than half of those occupied in trade were grocers.

After them came the textile merchants, produce and skins. In contrast to craft, women held an important place in some types of commerce. Out of 15 door to door peddlers, five were women.

On an average, every seventh family could have engaged a male or female domestic servant. According to the list, families, which is people 9 percentbelong to the group which lives off capital.

As already noted, these were apparently house owners and money lenders who took interest for mortgage loans. The group of clerks includes community clerks and clerks Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka the municipal and state administration.

Out of fourteen families engaged by the community a rabbi, two judges, a cantor, slaughterers, caretakers, trustees, etc. Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka from Kutno apparently played an important part Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka transporting loads between these places and the railway station of Kutno.

Twenty-five families made a living as tutors and teachers and four families were active in the area of science and art. However, the author of this article is Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka able to identify them. Among those practicing the free professions, the list notes Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka lawyers and seven doctors and nurses two women among them ; together with the science and art families, a Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka of 13 families. This accounts for no more than one percent of all the families.

Going by the class division Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka that time, 81 38 men and 43 women were merchants. Towns' people numbered 5, and seven people were classed as farmers. Concerning the educational standard of the Jewish population, 1, people knew how to read and write Russian men and womenwhich is more than one third of all the Jewish population aged 14 and older Their mature national and Jewish awareness is indicated by the fact that only three people recorded their mother tongue as other than Yiddish or Hebrew.

Only a very small percentage noted Hebrew as their mother tongue. The list also records one Jewish prisoner locked up his Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka name is not entered. Also two prostitutes who supported two children. Table Composition of occupations of the Jewish population percentages Occupation Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka In contrast, the number of those occupied in trade and industry went down from over 40 percent to less than a third.

But it must be taken into account that a certain proportion of craftsmen at the end of the 18 th century were engaged at the very same time in trade, especially bars, and actually Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka percentage of Jews Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka in trade was higher than that recorded. However, even after this reservation, the fact remains that in more Jews were engaged in craft than a year later.

The number of Jews living off community funds decreased. In the total number of clerks Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka no more than 1. In contrast, in the 19 th century the part taken by transport and delivery workers was almost five times greater. In more than five percent of the Jewish population Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka unemployed and lived off charity, and in this group was only 0. From this it can be learnt that the poverty that the Jewish population was sunk into at the end of the 18 th century had diminished.

The years before the First World War were boost years for the Jewish population. Between the years and the Jewish population in Kutno grew by 3, persons, an increase of 73 percent and was, in that year, 63 percent of the population of Kutno. This growth cannot be attributed solely to natural increase which, at Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka end of the 19 th century and the beginning of the 20 threached an average of 16 per thousand. During these thirteen years, therefore, the natural increase was 1 per persons.

If this Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka is added to the number of Jews inthe figure of is reached, while, in reality, the number of Jews in Kutno was 9, people. It turns out that the remaining 2, people represent Jews from other places who resided in Kutno. This large migration in thirteen years Prostitutes Rawa Mazowiecka that Kutno was a place for employment which attracted Jews.

In the same years commerce and haulage developed. Jews contributed largely to the building of large mechanical flour mills and other plants for the agricultural industry.

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After the abolishment of the grand duchy of Warsaw the district of Poznan was annexed to the large grand duchy of Poznan Rawa Mazowiecka Poland. In addition, there was an estimate of the economic state of the tax payers, setting out the amount of tax.

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